**These pages are made for only for our farm so it will be easy for us to go and remind ourselves what we need to do.
We collected those files over the years. We are always learning new information. We add and edit these files almost daily.
We collected those files over the years. We are always learning new information. We add and edit these files almost daily.
Nutrition problems
&
possible nutritional answers
&
possible nutritional answers
Problems Related to Mineral Deficiency Paralytic Problems
Milk Fever --------------------------------------------
Downer Milk Fever---------------------------------- Grass Tetany------------------------------------------ Knuckling fetlocks, Weak Hind leg---------------- Ataxia-------------------------------------------------- |
Possible Nutritional Answers
Ca/Phos. Ratio; Vit. D; inorganic sulfate The above plus magnesium Magnesium Vitamin E, Selenium, Copper Copper |
Hoof Problems
Hoof Rot----------------------------------------------- Abnormal hoof growth------------------------------ Soft hoof growth------------------------------------- Swollen Fetlocks------------------------------------- Laminitis----------------------------------------------- Hairy wart resistance------------------------------- |
Possible Nutritional Answers
Copper, iodine Copper Copper Copper High Rumen acid upsets copper absorption Copper (nutrition), Formaldehyde (foot bath) |
Breeding Problems
Retained Placentas, metritis----------------------- Lack of estrus ---------------------------------------- Tailless sperm in semen----------------------------- Lack of libido------------------------------------------ |
Possible Nutritional Answers
Copper, zinc, selenium, vitamin E Copper, zinc, selenium, vitamin E Selenium Copper, molybdenum |
Intestinal Problems
Acidosis (pH balance)------------------------------- Low butterfat test----------------------------------- Undigested feed in manure------------------------ Scouring----------------------------------------------- Worm resistance------------------------------------- Low production--------------------------------------- Abnormal appetite----------------------------------- |
Possible Nutritional Answers
Sodium bicarbonate Sodium bicarbonate Copper, cobalt Copper, molybdenum Copper, molybdenum Copper, zinc, manganese, inorganic sulfate Copper, cobalt |
Metabolic Problems
High somatic cell count----------------------------- E Ketosis---------------------------------------------- Pneumonia-------------------------------------------- Head abnormalities---------------------------------- Anemia------------------------------------------------ Retarded Growth------------------------------------ Sudden Death ---------------------------------------- Off-Flavor Milk--------------------------------------- High culling rate-------------------------------------- Fat Cow Syndrome---------------------------------- Hair off color, no bloom---------------------------- Tongue lolling----------------------------------------- |
Possible Nutritional Answers
Copper, zinc, selenium, vitamin Copper, inorganic sulfate Copper, zinc, selenium, vitamin E Cooper, selenium, magnesium Iron, copper, cobalt Copper, molybdenum Copper, selenium, grease & nitrate High iron (feed or water; vitamin E) cobalt Poor mineral nutrition program Copper, inorganic sulfate Copper, selenium Copper |
*Nutrition Chart by Myra Bamberger – From Agribusiness Dairyman as printed in United Caprine News, July, 1996 – – reprinted from REDGA Goat Notes. (Permission to print from Hoegger Farm Yard - see contact info under suppliers)
Minerals, Trace Elements & Vitamins Important
for Healthy Goats
Author unknown
for Healthy Goats
Author unknown
Anatomically goats are similar to other ruminants but with respect to mineral and vitamin requirements until recently, very little research had been carried out. That which has occurred has been performed almost by accident using goats as an inexpensive substitute for the cow. There is very little substantial data and very few definitive text books, which is very odd when one considers that there are over 400 million goats worldwide and more goats than sheep in the EU. In fact in some places e.g. The Sudan there are four goats for every person.
Recent surveys show that there are many areas deficient in certain minerals. However, the goat is an intelligent animal and usually manages on free range to eat herbs, weeds and other deep rooted plant material which has relatively high mineral content. However, real free range is very rare in the U.K. and for that matter this is true over a large proportion of the world.
If a goat of say 40-45kg (88-99 lbs) bodyweight gives 4.5kg (1 gallon or 1.2 US gals) of milk per day that is equal to a cow of 500kg (1100 lbs) giving 50kg (11+ gallons or over 13 US gallons!) No such animal exists. A goat is at least 50% more productive and efficient for its bodyweight than a cow. This means that if a goat is giving its own bodyweight in milk every 10 days or less, it is therefore utilizing vast quantities of vitamins and minerals. At its extreme, top goats in the UK have been known to yield consistently 9kg (nearly 20 lbs) of milk per day, which is equivalent to her own bodyweight every 5 days!
A goat also needs more minerals and vitamins for maintenance too: with its relatively large digestive system in relation to its body size, the work of digestion involves the use, and loss, of large quantities of minerals.
Before we take the minerals and trace elements individually, there is no absolute distinction between the two - it is merely a matter of degree. Elements that are used at high levels are referred to as minerals, whereas low levels are called trace elements.
Minerals
Calcium (Ca) and Phosphorous (P)
They are usually considered and always found together, yet they may be considered to be opposite in effect e.g. excess Ca is 'equivalent' to deficiency in P.
They are also both interactive with vitamin D as well as iron and copper. 99% is stored in the skeleton and 1% or less is used vitally in enzymatic processes, cell transport, blood clotting etc. The skeleton is the store for both Ca and P and somewhat surprisingly, the goat can add and draw from this reserve in times of deficiency.
There is normally a positive calcium balance during pregnancy when the skeleton is added to and a negative balance after kidding where up to 30% of the skeleton may be utilized.
A goat requires 1.3g of Ca and 1.0g P for each 1kg of milk produced: it requires 7.lg Ca and 4.9g P daily for maintenance. If we consider both these figures it is obvious that a Ca:P ratio of 1.4:1 is ideal, suiting both the above.
-Calcium deficiency manifests itself by rickets, milk fever (especially after kidding).
-Lack of Vitamin D will also help promote this, since it is required for retention of Ca in the bones.
-Phosphorous deficiency is more likely, less severe and harder to diagnose. Basically it causes 'poor thrift,' lower milk yields and general lethargy. Ca and P work on the thyroid gland together with Iodine to govern the metabolic rate - i.e. yield appetite, 'rate-of-living'. Very crudely, Ca acts as a brake and P an accelerator.
Unlike cows, goats excrete a large proportion of Ca and P and therefore have a relatively large requirement.
Magnesium (Mg)
70% is found in the bones and teeth, the rest in the blood. Again up to a third can be mobilized at times of need. Some of the functions of Ca depend upon Mg, too.
A daily requirement of 1.2g per day is necessary.
The first symptom is the lowering of the milk yield, possibly followed by magnesium tetany and hypomagnesemia. This is most common when animals are put out on to lush grass in spring when the Mg content in the grass is at its lowest and requirement greatest. It is relatively rare in goats.
Zinc (Zn)
This is found in skin, hair and enzymes. Exact requirements are not known but between 10-60 p.p.m. is considered satisfactory. We do know that 6-7 p.p.m. does cause deficiency with stunted kids that do not thrive. Little Zn is available and must be supplied from the diet since it is not stored in the body as a reservoir.
Deficiency symptoms are well documented although the extent and frequency are largely unknown. As an example, in Greece a survey of 150 goats showed 2% as having severe Zn deficiency. Zinc has a profound effect on males - much more than females - since it is involved in sperm production and the development of the sex organs. Deficiency symptoms include high bacteria in the mouth with excess saliva, stiffness of the joints and a low male sex drive. In vegetable diets Zn combines with phytic acid to form insoluble salts and becomes unavailable. Dry diets are more likely to cause parakeratosis and wetting of the feed hydrolyses the phytate salts and liberates the Zn. - so wetting of the feed for males is recommended.
Zn deficiency is best spotted by the condition of the coat - there is reduced hair growth, a staring coat and also lameness. Zinc is not very toxic, one would need around 1000 p.p.m. to cause problems.
However vast overfeeding or grazing in close proximity to smelting works has given rise to reports of excess, which interferes with iron and copper uptake, in turn giving anaemia. Zn in milk is proportional to feed intake and since goats milk is usually too low in zinc to be ideal for human requirements, supplementing with Zn is a real benefit, especially when the milk is required for feeding to babies.
Sodium (Na)
1.5g per day is required, which is equivalent to about 3.5g of salt (Sodium Chloride). Large excesses are detrimental to Vit A uptake and excess in the diet is excreted in the goat's urine. There are large differences between goats as to preference to salt and a pure salt lick is the best (and cheapest) option. Salt blocks combined with vitamins are not ideal because the vitamin content will degrade fast in this aggressive environment. It has been reported by McKenzie that all feral goats in the UK live near the sea because salt is so important to their existence. This is clearly nonsense since wild goats also exist in the centre of Asia 3000 miles from the sea!
Potassium (K)
It is now recognized that for goats relatively large quantities of K are needed. It is normally available in feedstuffs containing a high proportion of roughage and should not usually pose a problem. Deficiencies include emaciation, retarded growth, low feed intake with poor milk yields. It is not a toxic element and it is always a wise precaution to incorporate it in feed supplements.
They are usually considered and always found together, yet they may be considered to be opposite in effect e.g. excess Ca is 'equivalent' to deficiency in P.
They are also both interactive with vitamin D as well as iron and copper. 99% is stored in the skeleton and 1% or less is used vitally in enzymatic processes, cell transport, blood clotting etc. The skeleton is the store for both Ca and P and somewhat surprisingly, the goat can add and draw from this reserve in times of deficiency.
There is normally a positive calcium balance during pregnancy when the skeleton is added to and a negative balance after kidding where up to 30% of the skeleton may be utilized.
A goat requires 1.3g of Ca and 1.0g P for each 1kg of milk produced: it requires 7.lg Ca and 4.9g P daily for maintenance. If we consider both these figures it is obvious that a Ca:P ratio of 1.4:1 is ideal, suiting both the above.
-Calcium deficiency manifests itself by rickets, milk fever (especially after kidding).
-Lack of Vitamin D will also help promote this, since it is required for retention of Ca in the bones.
-Phosphorous deficiency is more likely, less severe and harder to diagnose. Basically it causes 'poor thrift,' lower milk yields and general lethargy. Ca and P work on the thyroid gland together with Iodine to govern the metabolic rate - i.e. yield appetite, 'rate-of-living'. Very crudely, Ca acts as a brake and P an accelerator.
Unlike cows, goats excrete a large proportion of Ca and P and therefore have a relatively large requirement.
Magnesium (Mg)
70% is found in the bones and teeth, the rest in the blood. Again up to a third can be mobilized at times of need. Some of the functions of Ca depend upon Mg, too.
A daily requirement of 1.2g per day is necessary.
The first symptom is the lowering of the milk yield, possibly followed by magnesium tetany and hypomagnesemia. This is most common when animals are put out on to lush grass in spring when the Mg content in the grass is at its lowest and requirement greatest. It is relatively rare in goats.
Zinc (Zn)
This is found in skin, hair and enzymes. Exact requirements are not known but between 10-60 p.p.m. is considered satisfactory. We do know that 6-7 p.p.m. does cause deficiency with stunted kids that do not thrive. Little Zn is available and must be supplied from the diet since it is not stored in the body as a reservoir.
Deficiency symptoms are well documented although the extent and frequency are largely unknown. As an example, in Greece a survey of 150 goats showed 2% as having severe Zn deficiency. Zinc has a profound effect on males - much more than females - since it is involved in sperm production and the development of the sex organs. Deficiency symptoms include high bacteria in the mouth with excess saliva, stiffness of the joints and a low male sex drive. In vegetable diets Zn combines with phytic acid to form insoluble salts and becomes unavailable. Dry diets are more likely to cause parakeratosis and wetting of the feed hydrolyses the phytate salts and liberates the Zn. - so wetting of the feed for males is recommended.
Zn deficiency is best spotted by the condition of the coat - there is reduced hair growth, a staring coat and also lameness. Zinc is not very toxic, one would need around 1000 p.p.m. to cause problems.
However vast overfeeding or grazing in close proximity to smelting works has given rise to reports of excess, which interferes with iron and copper uptake, in turn giving anaemia. Zn in milk is proportional to feed intake and since goats milk is usually too low in zinc to be ideal for human requirements, supplementing with Zn is a real benefit, especially when the milk is required for feeding to babies.
Sodium (Na)
1.5g per day is required, which is equivalent to about 3.5g of salt (Sodium Chloride). Large excesses are detrimental to Vit A uptake and excess in the diet is excreted in the goat's urine. There are large differences between goats as to preference to salt and a pure salt lick is the best (and cheapest) option. Salt blocks combined with vitamins are not ideal because the vitamin content will degrade fast in this aggressive environment. It has been reported by McKenzie that all feral goats in the UK live near the sea because salt is so important to their existence. This is clearly nonsense since wild goats also exist in the centre of Asia 3000 miles from the sea!
Potassium (K)
It is now recognized that for goats relatively large quantities of K are needed. It is normally available in feedstuffs containing a high proportion of roughage and should not usually pose a problem. Deficiencies include emaciation, retarded growth, low feed intake with poor milk yields. It is not a toxic element and it is always a wise precaution to incorporate it in feed supplements.
Be aware of copper antagonists
-Well water that is high in sulfur (stinky),
-Well water with iron (turns sink orange),
-Well water with calcium (leaves white deposits)
Those things can bind with copper, making it unavailable, and causing copper deficiency.
-Molybdenum in alfalfa
"Yes, that means that if your goats eat a high-alfalfa diet, which is necessary for good production, that your goats may need more copper. (This does NOT mean you should stop feeding alfalfa; it only means that your goats may need more copper than they would if they were not eating alfalfa.)
The amount of molybdenum in alfalfa can vary from one area to another, and it’s unlikely that alfalfa alone would cause copper deficiency, but if you already have well water with high mineral levels, the molybdenum in alfalfa could make it worse."
-Well water that is high in sulfur (stinky),
-Well water with iron (turns sink orange),
-Well water with calcium (leaves white deposits)
Those things can bind with copper, making it unavailable, and causing copper deficiency.
-Molybdenum in alfalfa
"Yes, that means that if your goats eat a high-alfalfa diet, which is necessary for good production, that your goats may need more copper. (This does NOT mean you should stop feeding alfalfa; it only means that your goats may need more copper than they would if they were not eating alfalfa.)
The amount of molybdenum in alfalfa can vary from one area to another, and it’s unlikely that alfalfa alone would cause copper deficiency, but if you already have well water with high mineral levels, the molybdenum in alfalfa could make it worse."
Vitamins
Vitamin A
Now recognized as very important to all livestock including goats and its primary function is fortifying the outer defenses of the skin and mucous membranes against disease. Vit A aids disease resistance and is required for good vision, lactation and reproduction. It is not yellow in color but the carotenoid pigments found in carrots, maize etc. are bright yellow and contain the precursor to Vitamin A known as Carotene.
Carotene is converted in the intestinal wall and this depends upon the thyroid gland. Since the thyroid is very large in the goat, this animal is a very efficient converter of Vit. A - in fact all carotene is converted: this is why goats milk is pure white whereas the milk from cows (relatively inefficient converters) is still yellow with unconverted carotene present. Deficiency symptoms are rare and include night blindness, poor reproductive performance and metritis.
Vitamin A is destroyed by sunlight and therefore old hay is very low in this vitamin. In winter make sure that kale and other feedstuffs high in Vit. A are fed. For the new-born kid the colostrum is very important since they have very small reserves of Vit. A. It is worth noting that the Vitamin A content of goats milk is directly proportional to the amount of beta-carotene occurring in the feed.
Vitamin D
Closely connected with Calcium and Phosphorous, Vit. D is required for the deposition and remobilization of the above into the skeleton. It is the antirachitic (prevents rickets) vitamin and its main source is from sunlight and is formed on the skin. Absorption is through the skin or by simply licking off. Deficiency symptoms are uncommon but goats that are kept indoors in winter etc. are most likely to suffer and therefore need supplementary feeding. Deficiency of Vit. D is a major cause of rickets, bow legs and osteomalacia and whilst it cannot make up for any absolute deficiency in Ca and P, Vit. D will compensate to some extent to help overcome any imbalance between the two. As in cows, there is a high output of Ca & P into the milk and Vit. D is needed to maintain mobility of these minerals. It has been suggested in France that extra Vit. D is given in the last weeks of pregnancy to prevent hypocalcemia (milk fever) and this does seem to be very sensible.
Vitamin E
As discussed Vit E is tied up with Selenium as a co-partner, but there are still some doubts as to its exact function. It is known to be concerned with the cell nucleus, the development of the foetus and the performance of the males. It is an antioxidant, facilitating absorption, storage and protection of Vit. A. Vit. E is found in oil meals and bran - however, if goats can be persuaded to eat cod liver oil, recent evidence shows that deficiency symptoms are created by forming gut conditions favorable to the destruction of both Vit. E and Selenium. The method of storage of feedstuffs is very important as the concentration of Vit. E is dependent upon it: basic feedstuffs can easily be made to be very deficient simply by bad storage conditions. Goats transfer Vit. E into the milk more readily than cows and should therefore receive daily adequate supplies of this vitamin to ensure milk quality. Apart from white muscle disease and muscular dystrophy, lack of Vit. E also causes sterility in males. Note that kids have no reserves of fat soluble vitamins (A,D & E) and sudden death of kids less than 2 weeks old is often due to lack of Vit. E in particular. This is normally overcome by feeding colostrum but the Vit. E content is also affected by the nutrition of the dam during pregnancy. With kids there is degeneration of muscle including the heart, whereas in older animals it will manifest itself as stiffness of the limbs.
The B Vitamins
Goats along with other ruminants are blessed with bacteria that live in the rumen and synthesis the B vitamins. Therefore it has been suggested that supplementation is not necessary, but there are several reasons for Vit. B inclusion:
1. inhibition of synthesis of certain B Vitamins by substances in feedstuffs occurs, especially those with high starch levels.
2. parasites in the gut totally remove certain B vitamins.
3. some B vitamins cannot be synthesized in sufficient quantities to meet demand - especially with heavy milkers and the shortfall must be provided via the feed.
Vitamin B1 (Thiamin)
Conventional feedstuffs contain fairly constant amounts of B1 and the higher the amount fed the lower the amount synthesized. However diets with high carbohydrate content increase the requirement of B1 which is one reason why straight grain diets should not be fed since they act as Vit. B1 antagonists. There is a relationship between Vit B1 deficiency and disease resistance and deficiency causes damage to the central nervous system (polioencephalomacia and cerebrocorticalnecrosis - PEM and CCN). This is exhibited by collapse, twitching etc. and the only cure is Vit B1 injection.
50-60mg per day is the recommended daily intake. Vit. B1 is also used as a preventative for acetonemia. Nicotinamide. Also a member of the B group vitamins. Recent evidence again shows limited synthesis and the majority of the vitamin is derived from the goat's feed intake. Supplementation improves milk production and butterfat levels. There is good evidence that Nicotinamide present in cereals is 'bound' i.e. not available and therefore must be added by supplementation in the diet.
Pantothenic acid
This is another of the B group vitamins. In high cellulose diets e.g. where hay comprises a large percentage, the biosynthesis of Pantothenic acid is impaired. It is found in fresh vegetables and, in milk, bound to the proteins. It serves an important function in the formation of enzymes and certain antibodies, and since recent evidence has shown that deficiency can occur, it is always best to incorporate it in the feed via supplementation on a daily basis
Vitamin B12 (Cyanocobalamin)
Directly associated with Cobalt, Vit. B12 has a Cobalt nucleus in a highly complex molecule. Large excesses of Cobalt in the gut will result in analogues of Vit B12 being formed these are identical to the natural vitamin except for a slight molecular variation. These analogues surprisingly have zero vitamin activity, despite being 99+% identical to the original and will cause Vit B12 deficiency symptoms (outlined under Cobalt).
Obviously, administering even more Cobalt is NOT the answer as this creates further problems and the best solution is to ensure a low daily dose of Cobalt is provided and in the case of B12 deficiency, an injection of this vitamin, whilst the gut flora returns to a normal healthy state
**Much more research is needed in this vital science - very little data is available to goat keepers with respect to Vitamin C, Vitamin K, Biotin, Folic Acid as well as other trace elements such as Fluorine, Chromium etc. - and what about amino acids, enzymes, fatty acids etc.? Only time and continued research will enable us to understand more fully the requirements of the goat and thus be able to cater adequately for her needs.
About the author: No author information was cited for this article.
Now recognized as very important to all livestock including goats and its primary function is fortifying the outer defenses of the skin and mucous membranes against disease. Vit A aids disease resistance and is required for good vision, lactation and reproduction. It is not yellow in color but the carotenoid pigments found in carrots, maize etc. are bright yellow and contain the precursor to Vitamin A known as Carotene.
Carotene is converted in the intestinal wall and this depends upon the thyroid gland. Since the thyroid is very large in the goat, this animal is a very efficient converter of Vit. A - in fact all carotene is converted: this is why goats milk is pure white whereas the milk from cows (relatively inefficient converters) is still yellow with unconverted carotene present. Deficiency symptoms are rare and include night blindness, poor reproductive performance and metritis.
Vitamin A is destroyed by sunlight and therefore old hay is very low in this vitamin. In winter make sure that kale and other feedstuffs high in Vit. A are fed. For the new-born kid the colostrum is very important since they have very small reserves of Vit. A. It is worth noting that the Vitamin A content of goats milk is directly proportional to the amount of beta-carotene occurring in the feed.
Vitamin D
Closely connected with Calcium and Phosphorous, Vit. D is required for the deposition and remobilization of the above into the skeleton. It is the antirachitic (prevents rickets) vitamin and its main source is from sunlight and is formed on the skin. Absorption is through the skin or by simply licking off. Deficiency symptoms are uncommon but goats that are kept indoors in winter etc. are most likely to suffer and therefore need supplementary feeding. Deficiency of Vit. D is a major cause of rickets, bow legs and osteomalacia and whilst it cannot make up for any absolute deficiency in Ca and P, Vit. D will compensate to some extent to help overcome any imbalance between the two. As in cows, there is a high output of Ca & P into the milk and Vit. D is needed to maintain mobility of these minerals. It has been suggested in France that extra Vit. D is given in the last weeks of pregnancy to prevent hypocalcemia (milk fever) and this does seem to be very sensible.
Vitamin E
As discussed Vit E is tied up with Selenium as a co-partner, but there are still some doubts as to its exact function. It is known to be concerned with the cell nucleus, the development of the foetus and the performance of the males. It is an antioxidant, facilitating absorption, storage and protection of Vit. A. Vit. E is found in oil meals and bran - however, if goats can be persuaded to eat cod liver oil, recent evidence shows that deficiency symptoms are created by forming gut conditions favorable to the destruction of both Vit. E and Selenium. The method of storage of feedstuffs is very important as the concentration of Vit. E is dependent upon it: basic feedstuffs can easily be made to be very deficient simply by bad storage conditions. Goats transfer Vit. E into the milk more readily than cows and should therefore receive daily adequate supplies of this vitamin to ensure milk quality. Apart from white muscle disease and muscular dystrophy, lack of Vit. E also causes sterility in males. Note that kids have no reserves of fat soluble vitamins (A,D & E) and sudden death of kids less than 2 weeks old is often due to lack of Vit. E in particular. This is normally overcome by feeding colostrum but the Vit. E content is also affected by the nutrition of the dam during pregnancy. With kids there is degeneration of muscle including the heart, whereas in older animals it will manifest itself as stiffness of the limbs.
The B Vitamins
Goats along with other ruminants are blessed with bacteria that live in the rumen and synthesis the B vitamins. Therefore it has been suggested that supplementation is not necessary, but there are several reasons for Vit. B inclusion:
1. inhibition of synthesis of certain B Vitamins by substances in feedstuffs occurs, especially those with high starch levels.
2. parasites in the gut totally remove certain B vitamins.
3. some B vitamins cannot be synthesized in sufficient quantities to meet demand - especially with heavy milkers and the shortfall must be provided via the feed.
Vitamin B1 (Thiamin)
Conventional feedstuffs contain fairly constant amounts of B1 and the higher the amount fed the lower the amount synthesized. However diets with high carbohydrate content increase the requirement of B1 which is one reason why straight grain diets should not be fed since they act as Vit. B1 antagonists. There is a relationship between Vit B1 deficiency and disease resistance and deficiency causes damage to the central nervous system (polioencephalomacia and cerebrocorticalnecrosis - PEM and CCN). This is exhibited by collapse, twitching etc. and the only cure is Vit B1 injection.
50-60mg per day is the recommended daily intake. Vit. B1 is also used as a preventative for acetonemia. Nicotinamide. Also a member of the B group vitamins. Recent evidence again shows limited synthesis and the majority of the vitamin is derived from the goat's feed intake. Supplementation improves milk production and butterfat levels. There is good evidence that Nicotinamide present in cereals is 'bound' i.e. not available and therefore must be added by supplementation in the diet.
Pantothenic acid
This is another of the B group vitamins. In high cellulose diets e.g. where hay comprises a large percentage, the biosynthesis of Pantothenic acid is impaired. It is found in fresh vegetables and, in milk, bound to the proteins. It serves an important function in the formation of enzymes and certain antibodies, and since recent evidence has shown that deficiency can occur, it is always best to incorporate it in the feed via supplementation on a daily basis
Vitamin B12 (Cyanocobalamin)
Directly associated with Cobalt, Vit. B12 has a Cobalt nucleus in a highly complex molecule. Large excesses of Cobalt in the gut will result in analogues of Vit B12 being formed these are identical to the natural vitamin except for a slight molecular variation. These analogues surprisingly have zero vitamin activity, despite being 99+% identical to the original and will cause Vit B12 deficiency symptoms (outlined under Cobalt).
Obviously, administering even more Cobalt is NOT the answer as this creates further problems and the best solution is to ensure a low daily dose of Cobalt is provided and in the case of B12 deficiency, an injection of this vitamin, whilst the gut flora returns to a normal healthy state
**Much more research is needed in this vital science - very little data is available to goat keepers with respect to Vitamin C, Vitamin K, Biotin, Folic Acid as well as other trace elements such as Fluorine, Chromium etc. - and what about amino acids, enzymes, fatty acids etc.? Only time and continued research will enable us to understand more fully the requirements of the goat and thus be able to cater adequately for her needs.
About the author: No author information was cited for this article.
Sulfur
Dairy Goat Nutrition by Penn State
Several sources of information were used in arriving at the “typical values” shown in the table. Where data were not available, but a reasonable estimate could be made from similar feeds or stage of maturity, this was done; after all, it's not too helpful to have a table with considerable missing information. Where zeros appear, the amount of that item is so small it can be considered insignificant in practical diet formulation. Blanks indicate the value is unknown.
Using table information
Feed names:
The most obvious or commonly used feed names are used in the table. Feeds designated as “fresh” are feeds that are grazed or fed as fresh-cut materials.
Dry matter:
Typical dry matter (DM) values are shown, but the moisture content of feeds can vary greatly. Thus, DM content can be the biggest reason for variation in feed composition on an “as-fed basis.” For this reason, chemical constituents and biological attributes of feeds shown in the table are on a DM basis.
Since DM can vary greatly, and one of the factors regulating total feed intake is the DM content of feeds, diet formulation on a DM basis is preferable to “as-fed” values. However, to convert a value to an as-fed basis, simply multiply the decimal equivalent of the DM content times the compositional value shown in the table.
Energy:
The table lists four measures of the energy value of feeds. TDN is shown because there are more determined TDN values and it's been the standard system for expressing the energy value of feeds for cattle and sheep. There are several technical problems with TDN, however.
For one, the digestibility of crude fiber (CF) may be higher than for nitrogen-free extract (NFE) in certain feeds due to the partition of lignin in the CF analysis. TDN also overestimates the energy value of roughages compared to concentrates in producing animals. Some argue that since energy isn't measured in pounds or percent, TDN isn't a valid energy measure. This, however, is more a scientific argument than a criticism of TDN's predictive value.
Digestible energy (DE) values aren't included in the table. There's a fairly constant relationship between TDN and DE in cattle and sheep; DE (Mcal/cwt.) can be calculated by multiplying the %TDN content by 2. The ability of TDN and DE to predict animal performance is therefore the same.
Interest in using net energy (NE) in feed evaluation was renewed with the development of the California net energy system. This is due to the improved predictability of the productive response of animals depending on whether feed energy is being used for maintenance (NEm), growth (NEg) or lactation (NEl). The major problem in using these NE values is predicting feed intake and thus the proportion of feed that will be used for maintenance and production. Some only use NEg but this suffers the equal but opposite criticism mentioned for TDN; NEg will overestimate the feeding value of concentrates relative to roughages.
The average of the two NE values can be used, but this would be true only for cattle and sheep eating twice their maintenance energy requirement. The most accurate way to use these NE values to formulate diets is to use the NEm value plus a multiplier times the NEg value, all divided by one plus the multiplier. The multiplier is the level of feed intake relative to maintenance.
For example, if 700-lb. cattle are expected to eat 18 lbs. of DM, 8 lbs. of which will be required for maintenance, the diet's NE value would be: NE = [NEm + (10/8)(NEg)]/[1 + (10/8)]
In deciding on the energy system to use, there is no question on NE's theoretical superiority over TDN in predicting animal performance. But this superiority is lost if only NEg is used to formulate diets. If NE is used, some combination of NEm and NEg is best.
NEl values are also shown but few have actually been determined. NEl values are similar to NEm values except for very high- and low-energy feeds.
Protein:
Crude protein (CP) values are shown, which are Kjeldahl nitrogen times 100/16 or 6.25, since proteins contain 16% nitrogen on the average. CP provides no information on the actual protein and non-protein nitrogen (NPN) content of a feed.
Digestible protein (DP) has been included in many feed composition tables. But because of the contribution of microbial and body protein to the protein in feces, DP is more misleading than CP. One can estimate DP from the CP content of the diet fed to cattle or sheep by the following equation: %DP = 0.9(%CP) - 3 where %DP and %CP are the diet values on a DM basis.
Undegradable intake protein (UIP; rumen “by-pass” or escape protein) values represent the percent of CP passing through the rumen without degradation by rumen microorganisms. Degradable intake protein (DIP) is the percent of CP degraded in the rumen and is equal to 100 minus UIP. Like other biological attributes, these values are not constant. UIP values on many feeds have not been determined and reasonable estimates are difficult to make.
How should these values be used to improve the predictability of animal performance when fed various feeds? Generally, DIP can supply CP up to 7% of the diet. If the required CP in the diet exceeds 7% of the DM, all CP above this amount should be UIP. In other words, if the final diet is to contain 13% CP, six of the 13 percentage units, or 46% of the CP, should be UIP.
Once the relationships between UIP and DIP have been better quantified, CP requirements may be lowered, especially at higher CP levels. For diets high in rumen fermentable carbohydrate, DIP requirements may determine the total CP required in the diet.
Crude, acid detergent and neutral detergent fiber:
After more than 125 years, crude fiber (CF) is declining in use as a measure of poorly digested carbohydrates in feeds. Its major problem is that variable amounts of lignin, which isn't digestible, are removed in the CF procedure. In the old scheme, the remaining carbohydrates (NFE) were thought to be more digestible than CF despite many feeds having higher CF digestibility than NFE. One reason CF remained in the analytical scheme was its apparent requirement for the TDN calculation.
Improved analytical procedures for fiber have been developed, namely acid detergent fiber (ADF) and neutral detergent fiber (NDF). ADF is related to feed digestibility and NDF is somewhat related to voluntary intake and the availability of net energy. Both measures relate more directly to predicted animal performance and thus are more valuable than CF. Lignification of NDF, however, alters the availability of the surface area to fiber-digesting rumen microorganisms; lignin, therefore, may be added to future tables.
Recently, effective NDF (eNDF) has been used to better describe the dietary fiber function in high-concentrate, feedlot-type diets. While eNDF is defined as the percent of NDF retained on a screen similar in size to particles that will pass from the rumen, this value is further modified based on feed density and degree of hydration.
Rumen pH is correlated with dietary eNDF when diets contain less than 26% eNDF. Thus, when formulating high-concentrate diets, including eNDF may help to prevent acidosis in the rumen. In feedlot diets, the recommended eNDF levels range from 5-20% depending on bunk management, inclusion of ionophores, digestion of NDF and/or microbial protein synthesis in the rumen.
Estimated eNDF values are shown for many feeds. These should be decreased depending on degree of feed processing (e.g., chopping, grinding, pelleting, flaking) and hydration (fresh forage, silages, high moisture grains) if these feed forms aren't specified in the table.
Ether extract:
Ether extract (EE) shows the feed's crude fat content.
Minerals:
Values are shown for only certain minerals. Calcium (Ca) and phosphorus (P) are important minerals to consider in most feeding situations. Potassium (K) is more important as the concentrate level increases and when NPN is substituted for intact protein in the diet.
Sulfur (S) also becomes more important as the NPN level increases in the diet. High dietary S levels compounded by high S levels in drinking water, however, can be detrimental. Zinc (Zn) is shown because it's less variable and is more generally near a deficient level in cattle and sheep diets. Chlorine (Cl) is of increasing interest for its role in dietary acid-base relationships.
The level of many other trace minerals in feeds is largely determined by the level in the soil on which the feeds are grown or other environmental factors that preclude showing a single value. Iodine and selenium are required nutrients that may be deficient in many diets, yet their level in a feed is more related to the conditions under which the feed is grown than to a characteristic of the feed itself. Trace mineralized salt and trace mineral premixes are generally used to supplement trace minerals; their use is encouraged where deficiencies exist.
Vitamins:
Vitamins aren't included in the table. The only vitamin of general practical importance in cattle and sheep feeding is the vitamin A value (vitamin A and carotene) in feeds. This depends largely on maturity and conditions at harvest, and the length and conditions during storage. Thus, it is probably unwise to rely entirely on harvested feeds as a source of vitamin A value.
Where roughages are fed that contain good green color or are being fed as immature, fresh forages (e.g., pasture), there will probably be sufficient vitamin A value to meet animal requirements. Other vitamins, if required, should be supplied as supplements.
Using table information
Feed names:
The most obvious or commonly used feed names are used in the table. Feeds designated as “fresh” are feeds that are grazed or fed as fresh-cut materials.
Dry matter:
Typical dry matter (DM) values are shown, but the moisture content of feeds can vary greatly. Thus, DM content can be the biggest reason for variation in feed composition on an “as-fed basis.” For this reason, chemical constituents and biological attributes of feeds shown in the table are on a DM basis.
Since DM can vary greatly, and one of the factors regulating total feed intake is the DM content of feeds, diet formulation on a DM basis is preferable to “as-fed” values. However, to convert a value to an as-fed basis, simply multiply the decimal equivalent of the DM content times the compositional value shown in the table.
Energy:
The table lists four measures of the energy value of feeds. TDN is shown because there are more determined TDN values and it's been the standard system for expressing the energy value of feeds for cattle and sheep. There are several technical problems with TDN, however.
For one, the digestibility of crude fiber (CF) may be higher than for nitrogen-free extract (NFE) in certain feeds due to the partition of lignin in the CF analysis. TDN also overestimates the energy value of roughages compared to concentrates in producing animals. Some argue that since energy isn't measured in pounds or percent, TDN isn't a valid energy measure. This, however, is more a scientific argument than a criticism of TDN's predictive value.
Digestible energy (DE) values aren't included in the table. There's a fairly constant relationship between TDN and DE in cattle and sheep; DE (Mcal/cwt.) can be calculated by multiplying the %TDN content by 2. The ability of TDN and DE to predict animal performance is therefore the same.
Interest in using net energy (NE) in feed evaluation was renewed with the development of the California net energy system. This is due to the improved predictability of the productive response of animals depending on whether feed energy is being used for maintenance (NEm), growth (NEg) or lactation (NEl). The major problem in using these NE values is predicting feed intake and thus the proportion of feed that will be used for maintenance and production. Some only use NEg but this suffers the equal but opposite criticism mentioned for TDN; NEg will overestimate the feeding value of concentrates relative to roughages.
The average of the two NE values can be used, but this would be true only for cattle and sheep eating twice their maintenance energy requirement. The most accurate way to use these NE values to formulate diets is to use the NEm value plus a multiplier times the NEg value, all divided by one plus the multiplier. The multiplier is the level of feed intake relative to maintenance.
For example, if 700-lb. cattle are expected to eat 18 lbs. of DM, 8 lbs. of which will be required for maintenance, the diet's NE value would be: NE = [NEm + (10/8)(NEg)]/[1 + (10/8)]
In deciding on the energy system to use, there is no question on NE's theoretical superiority over TDN in predicting animal performance. But this superiority is lost if only NEg is used to formulate diets. If NE is used, some combination of NEm and NEg is best.
NEl values are also shown but few have actually been determined. NEl values are similar to NEm values except for very high- and low-energy feeds.
Protein:
Crude protein (CP) values are shown, which are Kjeldahl nitrogen times 100/16 or 6.25, since proteins contain 16% nitrogen on the average. CP provides no information on the actual protein and non-protein nitrogen (NPN) content of a feed.
Digestible protein (DP) has been included in many feed composition tables. But because of the contribution of microbial and body protein to the protein in feces, DP is more misleading than CP. One can estimate DP from the CP content of the diet fed to cattle or sheep by the following equation: %DP = 0.9(%CP) - 3 where %DP and %CP are the diet values on a DM basis.
Undegradable intake protein (UIP; rumen “by-pass” or escape protein) values represent the percent of CP passing through the rumen without degradation by rumen microorganisms. Degradable intake protein (DIP) is the percent of CP degraded in the rumen and is equal to 100 minus UIP. Like other biological attributes, these values are not constant. UIP values on many feeds have not been determined and reasonable estimates are difficult to make.
How should these values be used to improve the predictability of animal performance when fed various feeds? Generally, DIP can supply CP up to 7% of the diet. If the required CP in the diet exceeds 7% of the DM, all CP above this amount should be UIP. In other words, if the final diet is to contain 13% CP, six of the 13 percentage units, or 46% of the CP, should be UIP.
Once the relationships between UIP and DIP have been better quantified, CP requirements may be lowered, especially at higher CP levels. For diets high in rumen fermentable carbohydrate, DIP requirements may determine the total CP required in the diet.
Crude, acid detergent and neutral detergent fiber:
After more than 125 years, crude fiber (CF) is declining in use as a measure of poorly digested carbohydrates in feeds. Its major problem is that variable amounts of lignin, which isn't digestible, are removed in the CF procedure. In the old scheme, the remaining carbohydrates (NFE) were thought to be more digestible than CF despite many feeds having higher CF digestibility than NFE. One reason CF remained in the analytical scheme was its apparent requirement for the TDN calculation.
Improved analytical procedures for fiber have been developed, namely acid detergent fiber (ADF) and neutral detergent fiber (NDF). ADF is related to feed digestibility and NDF is somewhat related to voluntary intake and the availability of net energy. Both measures relate more directly to predicted animal performance and thus are more valuable than CF. Lignification of NDF, however, alters the availability of the surface area to fiber-digesting rumen microorganisms; lignin, therefore, may be added to future tables.
Recently, effective NDF (eNDF) has been used to better describe the dietary fiber function in high-concentrate, feedlot-type diets. While eNDF is defined as the percent of NDF retained on a screen similar in size to particles that will pass from the rumen, this value is further modified based on feed density and degree of hydration.
Rumen pH is correlated with dietary eNDF when diets contain less than 26% eNDF. Thus, when formulating high-concentrate diets, including eNDF may help to prevent acidosis in the rumen. In feedlot diets, the recommended eNDF levels range from 5-20% depending on bunk management, inclusion of ionophores, digestion of NDF and/or microbial protein synthesis in the rumen.
Estimated eNDF values are shown for many feeds. These should be decreased depending on degree of feed processing (e.g., chopping, grinding, pelleting, flaking) and hydration (fresh forage, silages, high moisture grains) if these feed forms aren't specified in the table.
Ether extract:
Ether extract (EE) shows the feed's crude fat content.
Minerals:
Values are shown for only certain minerals. Calcium (Ca) and phosphorus (P) are important minerals to consider in most feeding situations. Potassium (K) is more important as the concentrate level increases and when NPN is substituted for intact protein in the diet.
Sulfur (S) also becomes more important as the NPN level increases in the diet. High dietary S levels compounded by high S levels in drinking water, however, can be detrimental. Zinc (Zn) is shown because it's less variable and is more generally near a deficient level in cattle and sheep diets. Chlorine (Cl) is of increasing interest for its role in dietary acid-base relationships.
The level of many other trace minerals in feeds is largely determined by the level in the soil on which the feeds are grown or other environmental factors that preclude showing a single value. Iodine and selenium are required nutrients that may be deficient in many diets, yet their level in a feed is more related to the conditions under which the feed is grown than to a characteristic of the feed itself. Trace mineralized salt and trace mineral premixes are generally used to supplement trace minerals; their use is encouraged where deficiencies exist.
Vitamins:
Vitamins aren't included in the table. The only vitamin of general practical importance in cattle and sheep feeding is the vitamin A value (vitamin A and carotene) in feeds. This depends largely on maturity and conditions at harvest, and the length and conditions during storage. Thus, it is probably unwise to rely entirely on harvested feeds as a source of vitamin A value.
Where roughages are fed that contain good green color or are being fed as immature, fresh forages (e.g., pasture), there will probably be sufficient vitamin A value to meet animal requirements. Other vitamins, if required, should be supplied as supplements.
Diamond V Yeast Culture XP-DEM
"We offer loose minerals, free choice, at all times. We offer it in a way that it cannot be "soiled" (stepped in or pooped in), because if it does get soiled, the goat will not eat it. We do not use mineral blocks because the kids climb on them and soil them and then the goats will not use it.
We use a cattle mineral mix that we can find, and buy, locally and has in it what we want for our goats. We mix it equal parts minerals to Diamond V Yeast Culture.
Diamond V Yeast Culture XP-DFM (which you should be able to order through your local feed store) is all natural and helps increase ruminal yeasts and bacteria, which, in turn, aids in digestion and helps the goats better utilize their food. It a sense, think of it as a "food booster". It also contains extra protein and vitamins. (NOTE: This is not the same thing as brewers yeast, bread yeast or nutritional yeast.)
We find when we feed this yeast our goats health is generally better and their coats are shinier in the summer and thicker in the winter. We also find that it increases milk yield. There are a few forms of Diamond V Yeast such as XP and XP-DFM. We use, and really like, the "XP-DFM" . This XP-DFM is on the expensive side (~ $40 per 50 lb. bag), and we have to have our local feed store special order it for us, but it lasts a very long time and we feel it is most definitely worth the cost and effort. Just ask your feed store to special order it. If they won't, try HERE.
Do not use a mineral mix labeled for "sheep and goats". This mix is really just for sheep and will not contain copper (sheep can't have copper). Goats do need copper. You are better off using a general livestock mix.
Look for mixes that contain the proper ratio of about 2 parts Calcium to 1 part Phosphorus.
We also offer baking soda free choice in a separate container. Baking soda aids the goat to buffer their rumen, which aids in digestion and helps avoid bloat. The goats will use it if they need it. If the baking soda "gets old" and you feel it is time to refresh it, just sprinkle the old remainder soda on a stall floor.
Goats like their minerals and baking soda fresh, so I offer only as much as they will finish off in a couple of days. This helps avoid waste.
"We offer loose minerals, free choice, at all times. We offer it in a way that it cannot be "soiled" (stepped in or pooped in), because if it does get soiled, the goat will not eat it. We do not use mineral blocks because the kids climb on them and soil them and then the goats will not use it.
We use a cattle mineral mix that we can find, and buy, locally and has in it what we want for our goats. We mix it equal parts minerals to Diamond V Yeast Culture.
Diamond V Yeast Culture XP-DFM (which you should be able to order through your local feed store) is all natural and helps increase ruminal yeasts and bacteria, which, in turn, aids in digestion and helps the goats better utilize their food. It a sense, think of it as a "food booster". It also contains extra protein and vitamins. (NOTE: This is not the same thing as brewers yeast, bread yeast or nutritional yeast.)
We find when we feed this yeast our goats health is generally better and their coats are shinier in the summer and thicker in the winter. We also find that it increases milk yield. There are a few forms of Diamond V Yeast such as XP and XP-DFM. We use, and really like, the "XP-DFM" . This XP-DFM is on the expensive side (~ $40 per 50 lb. bag), and we have to have our local feed store special order it for us, but it lasts a very long time and we feel it is most definitely worth the cost and effort. Just ask your feed store to special order it. If they won't, try HERE.
Do not use a mineral mix labeled for "sheep and goats". This mix is really just for sheep and will not contain copper (sheep can't have copper). Goats do need copper. You are better off using a general livestock mix.
Look for mixes that contain the proper ratio of about 2 parts Calcium to 1 part Phosphorus.
We also offer baking soda free choice in a separate container. Baking soda aids the goat to buffer their rumen, which aids in digestion and helps avoid bloat. The goats will use it if they need it. If the baking soda "gets old" and you feel it is time to refresh it, just sprinkle the old remainder soda on a stall floor.
Goats like their minerals and baking soda fresh, so I offer only as much as they will finish off in a couple of days. This helps avoid waste.
Goat Digestion & Absorption
"Goats are ruminants, animals with a four-compartment stomach, as are cattle, sheep and deer.
The compartments are the reticulum, rumen, omasum and abomasum, or true stomach. Monogastric or simple-stomached animals such as humans, dogs and cats consume food that undergoes acidic breakdown in the stomach and enzymatic digestion in the small intestine, where most nutrients are absorbed.
In ruminants, feed first undergoes microbial digestion in the reticulum and rumen — together, often called the reticulo-rumen — prior to acidic digestion in the abomasum and enzymatic digestion and nutrient absorption in the small intestine.
The microbial digestion in the reticulo-rumen allows ruminants to consume and utilize grass, hay, leaves and browse."
"The reticulum and rumen form a large fermentation vat that contains microorganisms, mainly bacteria, that breakdown and digest feedstuffs, including the fibrous component of grass, forbs, and browse that cannot be digested by monogastric animals. Some of the breakdown products produced through digestion of feed by bacteria are absorbed by the animal through the rumen wall and can supply a large part of the energy needs. "
"The rest of the byproducts of digestion, undigested feed and ruminal microorganisms flow out of the reticulo-rumen into the omasum where large feed particles are trapped for further digestion and water is reabsorbed. Material then flows into the abomasum where acidic digestion takes place and then to the small intestine for further enzymatic digestion and nutrient absorption."
The compartments are the reticulum, rumen, omasum and abomasum, or true stomach. Monogastric or simple-stomached animals such as humans, dogs and cats consume food that undergoes acidic breakdown in the stomach and enzymatic digestion in the small intestine, where most nutrients are absorbed.
In ruminants, feed first undergoes microbial digestion in the reticulum and rumen — together, often called the reticulo-rumen — prior to acidic digestion in the abomasum and enzymatic digestion and nutrient absorption in the small intestine.
The microbial digestion in the reticulo-rumen allows ruminants to consume and utilize grass, hay, leaves and browse."
"The reticulum and rumen form a large fermentation vat that contains microorganisms, mainly bacteria, that breakdown and digest feedstuffs, including the fibrous component of grass, forbs, and browse that cannot be digested by monogastric animals. Some of the breakdown products produced through digestion of feed by bacteria are absorbed by the animal through the rumen wall and can supply a large part of the energy needs. "
"The rest of the byproducts of digestion, undigested feed and ruminal microorganisms flow out of the reticulo-rumen into the omasum where large feed particles are trapped for further digestion and water is reabsorbed. Material then flows into the abomasum where acidic digestion takes place and then to the small intestine for further enzymatic digestion and nutrient absorption."
"When a goat eats, the feed or forage first enters the reticulum. Here honeycomb papillae (projections in a honeycomb pattern that line the rumen) help separate particles based on size. Large feed particles are sent back into the rumen for further digestion, and small particles are sent to the third digestive compartment. Large particles can also be regurgitated and re-chewed to make them smaller so that they are easier to digest. The most well-known gastro-intestinal compartment of the ruminant is the rumen. The rumen is a large fermentation vat where fatty acids, carbohydrates, proteins, and other nutrients are broken down. Microbes within the rumen help break down nutrients from feed stuffs that the animal’s digestive system otherwise cannot metabolize, like the fibrous components of feeds. Hemicellulose and cellulose are fibrous carbohydrate that animals cannot digest; rumen bacteria have the proper enzyme to degrade the molecules. This stomach compartment allows the ruminant to digest forages that nonruminants cannot. The bacteria of the reticulum and rumen do more than simply help break foods down. They synthesize B-complex vitamins and volatile fatty acids (VFAs). Microbes also allow the ruminant to use lower-quality protein sources to meet its needs; this means that the quantity of protein in a ruminant’s diet is much more important than quality., The microbial flora inhabiting the rumen of a goat changes with the goat’s diet. Goats that consume a high-forage diet have a microbial population different from that in goats fed a high grain diet. This difference in microbial populations in individual goats is the main reason that dietary changes should be made gradually over the course of 10 to 14 days. Rapid dietary changes could result in acidosis, ketosis, urinary calculi, and other diseases discussed in later sections of this publication. The third organ, the omasum, helps filter the food being digested and removes water that is absorbed through the folds of the omasum. The omasum pushes the food toward the abomasum for the last stage: complete chemical digestion. Chewing of “cud” is a well-known characteristic for ruminant animals. Rumination is regurgitation of ingested food by reverse peristalsis (movement from the digestive tract to mouth), followed by remastication or re-chewing. Then, finally, the re-chewed food is swallowed a second time. This process more efficiently breaks down roughage and increases its surface area to aid microbial fermentation in the goat’s digestive system. Goats generally ruminate when they are not exercising or eating. Rumination and grazing are inversely related: the more time spent grazing, the less time ruminating, and vice versa. Goats spend a considerable amount of time each day ruminating. As the microbes begin the fermentation process, they generate a substantial amount of gas. Eructation, or belching, is how ruminants release fermentation gasses. If eructation is inhibited, the rumen begins to expand and can cause bloat. The “true stomach,” or the abomasum, is analogous to the stomach in the monogastric animal. The ruminant’s abomasum has many of the same digestive enzymes and functions as the monogastric’s stomach. Here chemical digestion occurs in a low pH environment with the aid of digestive enzymes such as trypsin, pepsin, and chymotrypsin. Bicarbonate is also present and buffers the stomach’s pH to protect the stomach lining. It is critical to note that the ruminant animal is not born with a functioning rumen. For several weeks, the kid relies on the abomasum only. This is due to the kid’s primarily milk-based diet. The milk bypasses the rumen, reticulum, and abomasum via a structure called the esophageal groove. If milk enters the rumen for fermentation, the resulting products are useless and detrimental to the kid.
Essential Nutrients
While a goat can survive on many different types of feeds, the essential nutrients in every goat’s diet are water, energy (fat and carbohydrates), protein, minerals, and vitamins. Water Water is the cheapest and most essential of all the nutrients. However, it is often the most overlooked. Water’s many important roles within the body aid the animal in daily function and survival. On a larger scale, availability of water can determine size and efficiency of a goat operation.
Goats, like all animals, have three sources of water. The first is drinking water, which is the water provided by the producer or from a natural water source. The second source is water within the feed, which can be significant when goats are consuming high-moisture feeds, such as silage. The third, and least significant for small ruminants, is metabolic water. Metabolic water is the water generated by the catalysis (breakdown) of other nutrients. Water restriction can decrease goat productivity. Severely dehydrated goats may eat less and, ultimately, produce less. From a management standpoint, water intake must be proportional to feed intake. The more water that is available, the more likely the animal is comfortable and eating. During dehydration the goat’s heart rate and respiration rate rise, ultimately causing the animal’s body temperature to rise. Signs of dehydration can be, but are not limited to panting, pale gums, sunken flank region that exposes the hips, and a lack of skin elasticity. A high fever plus disrupted bodily functions caused by lack of water can result in the death of a goat. Goats need 0.75-1.5 gallons per animal per day. However, this amount can vary drastically depending on season, climate, and production stage. Producers should provide ample, fresh, and free-choice water. During winter, ice-free water should be available at all times to goats. To eliminate competition for water, make sure there is ample space at troughs or fountains for your herd.
Energy
Energy is most often the limiting nutrient in a goat’s feeding regimen. There are two main sources of energy in nature: carbohydrates and fat. Excess dietary protein can also be an energy source. Sugars and starches are carbohydrates and constitute approximately 65% to 75% of the total energy from forages. Goats and other ruminants can digest the starches from plants because microbes possess the catalytic enzyme, cellulase, which can catabolize cellulose, the major carbohydrates in plants. Rumen microbes use cellulose and produce volatile fatty acids (VFAs) as a waste product. Ruminants then use VFAs as an energy source. When compared to starch or sugars, fats offer 2.25 times as much energy per gram. Although fat is high-energy, it should comprise no more than 6% of a goat’s diet. Too much fat can harm the microbial population in the rumen. Several different methods can be used to quantify the level of energy needed by a goat or contained within the feed. The two primary methods are described in the following text. Total digestible nutrients (TDN), is a measurement of the energy value of a feed or ration. Most commonly, TDN is expressed as a percent of a feedstuff. It can also be described as absolute (pounds) needed by an animal. TDN can be calculated by taking the sum of digestible crude protein, fat, crude fiber and nitrogen-free extract (starch). TDN does not account for the energy lost from urine, gas, and heat. Net energy is nearly always the most accurate system for describing the energy needs of the animal. Net energy is the energy available to the animal after accounting for energy loss. This system is more accurate because it takes into consideration energy losses in feces, urine, gasses, and heat (produced during fermentation). It is more accurate than TDN for determining energy needs for goats, but is difficult to estimate and not always practical.
Protein
Proteins are crucial to a goat’s development and are involved in in most biological processes. Proteins are made up of long chains of individual amino acids. The way the amino acid sequence is “read” is specific, just as people read English sentences from left to right. These building blocks determine the protein’s function within the body. Protein aids in the synthesis of new tissues and repair of old tissues; therefore, protein is very involved in rate of gain, repair of tissues after pregnancy, and lactation. In terms of nutrition, protein is the most expensive nutrient to feed. Proteins must also be fed carefully, because both a deficiency and surplus can lead to problems. For small ruminants like goats, protein quality is not as important as it is for nonruminants. Microbes within the rumen (which nonruminants do not have) allow for utilization and digestibility of low-quality protein in ruminant animals. All the protein present within the feed is called feed intake protein. Feed intake protein can be further divided into degradable intake protein (DIP) and undegradable intake protein (UIP). DIP is the portion of the protein source that is available for the microbes to modify during digestion in the rumen. Microbes convert DIP into bacterial protein. UIP is the portion of the protein source that is unavailable to the microbes for digestion and remains unchanged when it reaches the abomasum and small intestine. DIP and UIP must be in balance with each other to have a healthy rumen where the flora is maintained and the goat absorbs nutrients—so the goat is healthy. The combination of bacterial protein and UIP that reach the small intestine is called metabolic protein (MP). As mentioned earlier, UIP enters the small intestine unchanged. Metabolizable protein is then absorbed into the bloodstream to be used by the goats. For does, the recommended amount of crude protein varies widely throughout the production cycle, depending on whether they are open, pregnant, or lactating. Protein requirements for kids vary by stage of growth. Goats on high-quality hay or grazing forage generally do not need an additional protein supplement. The rumen microbes efficiently convert forage sources to protein for the goat’s use. Sources of feedstuffs that meet the needs of goats are high quality forages (hay and alfalfa) and plant meals (soybean and canola). Nonprotein nitrogen (NPN) is another source of protein for goats. NPN can be used in ruminants because microbes in the rumen can take nitrogen containing compounds (such as urea) and convert them into free amino acids.
Minerals
Minerals are classified into two categories based on the amount required: macrominerals and microminerals (trace minerals). Macrominerals are required in larger amounts and are expressed as percent or absolute. Microminerals are needed in smaller amounts, such as parts per million. Essential minerals for goats include calcium, phosphorous, sodium, chloride, magnesium, zinc, copper, iodine, and selenium, and should be accounted for when feeding goats. The ratio of calcium to phosphorous is important when feeding male meat goats and should be at least two parts calcium to one part phosphorous to help prevent urinary calculi. Minerals can be provided in several different forms with advantages and disadvantages for each. Loose feeding or free-choice is an efficient and popular method to offer minerals to the goat herd, but can be disadvantageous because of variation in animalto-animal consumption. Mineral blocks are also used to supply minerals. Both of these methods prevent the producer from quantifying the amount consumed per individual. If minerals are to be incorporated into the goat’s diet, be sure to purchase high-quality minerals designed for goats. The minerals should be provided to the herd in a weatherprotected delivery device. Minerals can also be provided within a total mix ration (TMR) or a pre-mix. In TMR feed the minerals are mixed in at a determined amount. A pre-mix is composed of a specific mineral or combination of minerals that the producer then adds to his/her feed. A TMR or pre-mix can be a more accurate management method, but is not possible in unsupplemented grazing animals. Injection of minerals is also an option when a specific mineral is known to be deficient. Injections allow the producer to deliver the exact amount each individual needs and to cater to different production stages.
Vitamins
There are two classes of vitamins based on solubility properties.
Those that dissolve in fats are called “fat soluble” vitamins. Vitamins that dissolve into water are termed “water-soluble” vitamins.
Fat-soluble vitamins are A, D, E, and K. Microbes produce byproducts that include Vitamin K, so that vitamin does not need to be incorporated into goats’ diets. Vitamin K is integral for blood clotting by aiding in the formation of prothrombin. The remaining fat-soluble vitamins are considered essential; they must be included in the diet. Vitamin A is primarily involved in vision development and is the source of retinol. Vitamin D is a hormone, but was coined a vitamin first, as it is imperative for bone formation. Vitamin D is synthesized when the animals are exposed to sunlight and supplementation is not necessary. A major antioxidant within the body originates from Vitamin E. Vitamin E also plays an integral role in reproduction. This vitamin has a unique relationship with selenium that is explained in the “Nutritionally Caused Diseases” section later in this publication. Ruminants do not usually require water-soluble vitamins (B-complex vitamins) in their feeding regimen, because microbes in the rumen produce adequate amounts of these water-soluble vitamins under normal circumstances. Water-soluble vitamins only need to be supplemented in special circumstances. However, one B vitamin that can be of concern is B1 or thiamine, which can result in the condition, polioencephalomalacia, which is further explained in the “Nutritionally Caused Diseases” later in this publication. Vitamin C is not required in the diet, because goats synthesize adequate amounts with normal metabolism. Many vitamins are recommended in units defined as the international unit (IU). The international unit is used in pharmacology to define the biologic activity or effect of a substance. Vitamin A requirements are described by the units entitled retinol equivalents.
While a goat can survive on many different types of feeds, the essential nutrients in every goat’s diet are water, energy (fat and carbohydrates), protein, minerals, and vitamins. Water Water is the cheapest and most essential of all the nutrients. However, it is often the most overlooked. Water’s many important roles within the body aid the animal in daily function and survival. On a larger scale, availability of water can determine size and efficiency of a goat operation.
Goats, like all animals, have three sources of water. The first is drinking water, which is the water provided by the producer or from a natural water source. The second source is water within the feed, which can be significant when goats are consuming high-moisture feeds, such as silage. The third, and least significant for small ruminants, is metabolic water. Metabolic water is the water generated by the catalysis (breakdown) of other nutrients. Water restriction can decrease goat productivity. Severely dehydrated goats may eat less and, ultimately, produce less. From a management standpoint, water intake must be proportional to feed intake. The more water that is available, the more likely the animal is comfortable and eating. During dehydration the goat’s heart rate and respiration rate rise, ultimately causing the animal’s body temperature to rise. Signs of dehydration can be, but are not limited to panting, pale gums, sunken flank region that exposes the hips, and a lack of skin elasticity. A high fever plus disrupted bodily functions caused by lack of water can result in the death of a goat. Goats need 0.75-1.5 gallons per animal per day. However, this amount can vary drastically depending on season, climate, and production stage. Producers should provide ample, fresh, and free-choice water. During winter, ice-free water should be available at all times to goats. To eliminate competition for water, make sure there is ample space at troughs or fountains for your herd.
Energy
Energy is most often the limiting nutrient in a goat’s feeding regimen. There are two main sources of energy in nature: carbohydrates and fat. Excess dietary protein can also be an energy source. Sugars and starches are carbohydrates and constitute approximately 65% to 75% of the total energy from forages. Goats and other ruminants can digest the starches from plants because microbes possess the catalytic enzyme, cellulase, which can catabolize cellulose, the major carbohydrates in plants. Rumen microbes use cellulose and produce volatile fatty acids (VFAs) as a waste product. Ruminants then use VFAs as an energy source. When compared to starch or sugars, fats offer 2.25 times as much energy per gram. Although fat is high-energy, it should comprise no more than 6% of a goat’s diet. Too much fat can harm the microbial population in the rumen. Several different methods can be used to quantify the level of energy needed by a goat or contained within the feed. The two primary methods are described in the following text. Total digestible nutrients (TDN), is a measurement of the energy value of a feed or ration. Most commonly, TDN is expressed as a percent of a feedstuff. It can also be described as absolute (pounds) needed by an animal. TDN can be calculated by taking the sum of digestible crude protein, fat, crude fiber and nitrogen-free extract (starch). TDN does not account for the energy lost from urine, gas, and heat. Net energy is nearly always the most accurate system for describing the energy needs of the animal. Net energy is the energy available to the animal after accounting for energy loss. This system is more accurate because it takes into consideration energy losses in feces, urine, gasses, and heat (produced during fermentation). It is more accurate than TDN for determining energy needs for goats, but is difficult to estimate and not always practical.
Protein
Proteins are crucial to a goat’s development and are involved in in most biological processes. Proteins are made up of long chains of individual amino acids. The way the amino acid sequence is “read” is specific, just as people read English sentences from left to right. These building blocks determine the protein’s function within the body. Protein aids in the synthesis of new tissues and repair of old tissues; therefore, protein is very involved in rate of gain, repair of tissues after pregnancy, and lactation. In terms of nutrition, protein is the most expensive nutrient to feed. Proteins must also be fed carefully, because both a deficiency and surplus can lead to problems. For small ruminants like goats, protein quality is not as important as it is for nonruminants. Microbes within the rumen (which nonruminants do not have) allow for utilization and digestibility of low-quality protein in ruminant animals. All the protein present within the feed is called feed intake protein. Feed intake protein can be further divided into degradable intake protein (DIP) and undegradable intake protein (UIP). DIP is the portion of the protein source that is available for the microbes to modify during digestion in the rumen. Microbes convert DIP into bacterial protein. UIP is the portion of the protein source that is unavailable to the microbes for digestion and remains unchanged when it reaches the abomasum and small intestine. DIP and UIP must be in balance with each other to have a healthy rumen where the flora is maintained and the goat absorbs nutrients—so the goat is healthy. The combination of bacterial protein and UIP that reach the small intestine is called metabolic protein (MP). As mentioned earlier, UIP enters the small intestine unchanged. Metabolizable protein is then absorbed into the bloodstream to be used by the goats. For does, the recommended amount of crude protein varies widely throughout the production cycle, depending on whether they are open, pregnant, or lactating. Protein requirements for kids vary by stage of growth. Goats on high-quality hay or grazing forage generally do not need an additional protein supplement. The rumen microbes efficiently convert forage sources to protein for the goat’s use. Sources of feedstuffs that meet the needs of goats are high quality forages (hay and alfalfa) and plant meals (soybean and canola). Nonprotein nitrogen (NPN) is another source of protein for goats. NPN can be used in ruminants because microbes in the rumen can take nitrogen containing compounds (such as urea) and convert them into free amino acids.
Minerals
Minerals are classified into two categories based on the amount required: macrominerals and microminerals (trace minerals). Macrominerals are required in larger amounts and are expressed as percent or absolute. Microminerals are needed in smaller amounts, such as parts per million. Essential minerals for goats include calcium, phosphorous, sodium, chloride, magnesium, zinc, copper, iodine, and selenium, and should be accounted for when feeding goats. The ratio of calcium to phosphorous is important when feeding male meat goats and should be at least two parts calcium to one part phosphorous to help prevent urinary calculi. Minerals can be provided in several different forms with advantages and disadvantages for each. Loose feeding or free-choice is an efficient and popular method to offer minerals to the goat herd, but can be disadvantageous because of variation in animalto-animal consumption. Mineral blocks are also used to supply minerals. Both of these methods prevent the producer from quantifying the amount consumed per individual. If minerals are to be incorporated into the goat’s diet, be sure to purchase high-quality minerals designed for goats. The minerals should be provided to the herd in a weatherprotected delivery device. Minerals can also be provided within a total mix ration (TMR) or a pre-mix. In TMR feed the minerals are mixed in at a determined amount. A pre-mix is composed of a specific mineral or combination of minerals that the producer then adds to his/her feed. A TMR or pre-mix can be a more accurate management method, but is not possible in unsupplemented grazing animals. Injection of minerals is also an option when a specific mineral is known to be deficient. Injections allow the producer to deliver the exact amount each individual needs and to cater to different production stages.
Vitamins
There are two classes of vitamins based on solubility properties.
Those that dissolve in fats are called “fat soluble” vitamins. Vitamins that dissolve into water are termed “water-soluble” vitamins.
Fat-soluble vitamins are A, D, E, and K. Microbes produce byproducts that include Vitamin K, so that vitamin does not need to be incorporated into goats’ diets. Vitamin K is integral for blood clotting by aiding in the formation of prothrombin. The remaining fat-soluble vitamins are considered essential; they must be included in the diet. Vitamin A is primarily involved in vision development and is the source of retinol. Vitamin D is a hormone, but was coined a vitamin first, as it is imperative for bone formation. Vitamin D is synthesized when the animals are exposed to sunlight and supplementation is not necessary. A major antioxidant within the body originates from Vitamin E. Vitamin E also plays an integral role in reproduction. This vitamin has a unique relationship with selenium that is explained in the “Nutritionally Caused Diseases” section later in this publication. Ruminants do not usually require water-soluble vitamins (B-complex vitamins) in their feeding regimen, because microbes in the rumen produce adequate amounts of these water-soluble vitamins under normal circumstances. Water-soluble vitamins only need to be supplemented in special circumstances. However, one B vitamin that can be of concern is B1 or thiamine, which can result in the condition, polioencephalomalacia, which is further explained in the “Nutritionally Caused Diseases” later in this publication. Vitamin C is not required in the diet, because goats synthesize adequate amounts with normal metabolism. Many vitamins are recommended in units defined as the international unit (IU). The international unit is used in pharmacology to define the biologic activity or effect of a substance. Vitamin A requirements are described by the units entitled retinol equivalents.
Common NutritionalDiseases
Nutrient mismanagement can lead to nutritional diseases that may result in production limitations.
A more in-depth discussion of common diseases in goats can be found in the Purdue Extension publication, Common Diseases and Health Problems in Sheep and Goats (AS-595-W).
A well-fed (meat) goat has a fleshy appearance, a shiny hair-coat, and a normal growth curve. The goat is bright and alert. Signs of an unhealthy (meat) goat include bones that are visible through the coat; a dingy, rough hair coat; slow growth when compared to herd mates; poor milk production; and lethargy resulting in decreased feed intake.
Urinary calculi
Urinary Calculi is a condition common to (intact) male goats.
It is a metabolic disease where calculi (stones) become lodged in the urinary tract. These “stones” are generally comprised of phosphate salts. This disease arises when low-roughage, high-grain diets are fed, preventing phosphorous from being recycled and causing a build-up in the urinary tract. Male goats are more prone to this condition because of the structure of their reproductive tract. Maintaining the appropriate ratio of Ca:P (2:1) in the ration is an effective way to prevent urinary calculi. Fresh water is imperative to preventing urinary calculi, as a dehydrated goat has more concentrated urine, making stone formation more common.
Acidosis
Acidosis occurs when the goat consumes a high amount of starch. An alternate name for this condition is “grain overload.”
If rumen microbes are not adapted to a high starch diet, the lactic acid produced by starch breakdown is not used fast enough to prevent acidic conditions in the rumen. Acidosis can be acute or sub-acute, and can lead to secondary problems. The acute form can have serious implications and result in death. Sub-acute conditions can cause scours, decrease appetite, and hoof problems such as founder.
Ketosis
Ketosis is a condition where a fat imbalance occurs from a high concentration of ketone bodies.
This condition affects does during late gestation when the dam is unable to meet the glucose demand for the fetuses (or fetus) and her own metabolism. A doe with two or more fetuses is especially susceptible to this condition. A reduction in glucose causes the doe to metabolize her fat stores at high levels, leading to fatty acid production, and, ultimately, ketone body production. Ketones at hyper-elevated levels in the bloodstream can be toxic, hence the term toxemia. In severe cases, does are too weak to stand and eventually die. The doe must have a balanced diet, including high-energy (carbohydrate) feeds to prevent this condition.
Grass Tetany
Grass Tetany affects goats deficient in magnesium.
This can affect any ruminant animal, especially those grazing on rapidly growing grass in the spring. While animals may die before showing symptoms, signs a producer should be aware of are incoordination, staring, thrashing, and general loss of body control. Pasture rotation and pasture management can eliminate this deficiency.
White muscle disease
White Muscle Disease is correlated to selenium imbalance and, because of the interdependence on vitamin E, a vitamin E imbalance.
This degenerative muscle disease is common in developing kids. White muscle disease can affect skeletal muscles or heart muscles, or both. Skeletal muscle that is affected causes a stiff gait due to a hunched back. When the heart muscle is affected, the goat may present frothy, blood-stained nasal discharge. Selenium deficiency can also affect an individual’s immunity, reproduction, and vigor of kids at birth. White muscle disease can be treated with an injection of both vitamin E and selenium. Vitamin E and selenium are generally included in the ration or mineral pre-mix.
Goiter
Goiter is an iodine-deficiency symptom of and results in a hypertrophied (enlarged) thyroid. The thyroid is found in the throat region and, when iodinedeficient, appears as a large “bulge” at the throat. The thyroid becomes enlarged because it must work harder to obtain small amounts of iodine present in the diet. States surrounding the Great Lakes contain soils deficient in iodine, therefore iodine should be included in rations. Night Blindness originates from a deficiency in vitamin A. Vitamin A is vital for vision. Vitamin A is also most likely to be deficient when older stored hays are fed. Polioencephalomalacia results from thiamine deficiency or sulfur toxicity and literally means, “softening of the brain.” This condition can be caused by high-carbohydrate diets or by eating excess amounts of sulfur compounds. Sulfur produces thiamine-like compounds called analogs that decrease the absorption of thiamine in the rumen. Sources of excess sulfur include water and by-product feeds from the ethanol industry. Total sulfur content in a diet should not exceed 0.3% of diet dry matter.
________________________________________________________________________________________
Evaluation of Feeding Program
The feeding program can be evaluated by body weight, quality of hair coat, and productivity of the individual. However, an efficient way to evaluate a goat herd is by body condition scoring (BCS) the animals. For an in-depth discussion on BCS refer Purdue’s Extension publication, Body Condition Scoring in Farm Animals (AS-550-W). Producers using the BCS system judge a goat based on key anatomical points and the fat depots over each point. The greater the fat deposition over a certain point, the higher the BCS score. Generally, a healthy and high-producing goat scores from 2.0 to 3.5 over the course of the production cycle. Producers arrive at a BCS by either looking at a stationary animal or running a hand over each critical point. The nutritional needs throughout development and during the production cycle vary, just as the BCS does. A doe at weaning should score 2.0 to 2.5, while at late gestation she could score 3.5. Moving from 2.0 to 3.5 equates to about 8–10 pound fluctuation in body weight. The BCS should match the production stage of the goat and their nutrient needs.
The second method a producer might use to properly manage a goat herd is quantitative and requires accurately maintained records. Each individual animal has its own set of records that includes, but is not limited to, de-worming schedule, amount of feed, weight, and breeding schedule. For a production system, feed consumption can be difficult to manage, but is practical given the limitations associated with individual records. Often a producer discovers it is a combination of these methods, in addition to close observations of his/her goats that allows for a productive, efficient, and healthy herd. Once these basic management practices are implemented, the chance of mismanaging a goat’s diet and dealing with the resulting consequences are minimized.
Nutrient mismanagement can lead to nutritional diseases that may result in production limitations.
A more in-depth discussion of common diseases in goats can be found in the Purdue Extension publication, Common Diseases and Health Problems in Sheep and Goats (AS-595-W).
A well-fed (meat) goat has a fleshy appearance, a shiny hair-coat, and a normal growth curve. The goat is bright and alert. Signs of an unhealthy (meat) goat include bones that are visible through the coat; a dingy, rough hair coat; slow growth when compared to herd mates; poor milk production; and lethargy resulting in decreased feed intake.
Urinary calculi
Urinary Calculi is a condition common to (intact) male goats.
It is a metabolic disease where calculi (stones) become lodged in the urinary tract. These “stones” are generally comprised of phosphate salts. This disease arises when low-roughage, high-grain diets are fed, preventing phosphorous from being recycled and causing a build-up in the urinary tract. Male goats are more prone to this condition because of the structure of their reproductive tract. Maintaining the appropriate ratio of Ca:P (2:1) in the ration is an effective way to prevent urinary calculi. Fresh water is imperative to preventing urinary calculi, as a dehydrated goat has more concentrated urine, making stone formation more common.
Acidosis
Acidosis occurs when the goat consumes a high amount of starch. An alternate name for this condition is “grain overload.”
If rumen microbes are not adapted to a high starch diet, the lactic acid produced by starch breakdown is not used fast enough to prevent acidic conditions in the rumen. Acidosis can be acute or sub-acute, and can lead to secondary problems. The acute form can have serious implications and result in death. Sub-acute conditions can cause scours, decrease appetite, and hoof problems such as founder.
Ketosis
Ketosis is a condition where a fat imbalance occurs from a high concentration of ketone bodies.
This condition affects does during late gestation when the dam is unable to meet the glucose demand for the fetuses (or fetus) and her own metabolism. A doe with two or more fetuses is especially susceptible to this condition. A reduction in glucose causes the doe to metabolize her fat stores at high levels, leading to fatty acid production, and, ultimately, ketone body production. Ketones at hyper-elevated levels in the bloodstream can be toxic, hence the term toxemia. In severe cases, does are too weak to stand and eventually die. The doe must have a balanced diet, including high-energy (carbohydrate) feeds to prevent this condition.
Grass Tetany
Grass Tetany affects goats deficient in magnesium.
This can affect any ruminant animal, especially those grazing on rapidly growing grass in the spring. While animals may die before showing symptoms, signs a producer should be aware of are incoordination, staring, thrashing, and general loss of body control. Pasture rotation and pasture management can eliminate this deficiency.
White muscle disease
White Muscle Disease is correlated to selenium imbalance and, because of the interdependence on vitamin E, a vitamin E imbalance.
This degenerative muscle disease is common in developing kids. White muscle disease can affect skeletal muscles or heart muscles, or both. Skeletal muscle that is affected causes a stiff gait due to a hunched back. When the heart muscle is affected, the goat may present frothy, blood-stained nasal discharge. Selenium deficiency can also affect an individual’s immunity, reproduction, and vigor of kids at birth. White muscle disease can be treated with an injection of both vitamin E and selenium. Vitamin E and selenium are generally included in the ration or mineral pre-mix.
Goiter
Goiter is an iodine-deficiency symptom of and results in a hypertrophied (enlarged) thyroid. The thyroid is found in the throat region and, when iodinedeficient, appears as a large “bulge” at the throat. The thyroid becomes enlarged because it must work harder to obtain small amounts of iodine present in the diet. States surrounding the Great Lakes contain soils deficient in iodine, therefore iodine should be included in rations. Night Blindness originates from a deficiency in vitamin A. Vitamin A is vital for vision. Vitamin A is also most likely to be deficient when older stored hays are fed. Polioencephalomalacia results from thiamine deficiency or sulfur toxicity and literally means, “softening of the brain.” This condition can be caused by high-carbohydrate diets or by eating excess amounts of sulfur compounds. Sulfur produces thiamine-like compounds called analogs that decrease the absorption of thiamine in the rumen. Sources of excess sulfur include water and by-product feeds from the ethanol industry. Total sulfur content in a diet should not exceed 0.3% of diet dry matter.
________________________________________________________________________________________
Evaluation of Feeding Program
The feeding program can be evaluated by body weight, quality of hair coat, and productivity of the individual. However, an efficient way to evaluate a goat herd is by body condition scoring (BCS) the animals. For an in-depth discussion on BCS refer Purdue’s Extension publication, Body Condition Scoring in Farm Animals (AS-550-W). Producers using the BCS system judge a goat based on key anatomical points and the fat depots over each point. The greater the fat deposition over a certain point, the higher the BCS score. Generally, a healthy and high-producing goat scores from 2.0 to 3.5 over the course of the production cycle. Producers arrive at a BCS by either looking at a stationary animal or running a hand over each critical point. The nutritional needs throughout development and during the production cycle vary, just as the BCS does. A doe at weaning should score 2.0 to 2.5, while at late gestation she could score 3.5. Moving from 2.0 to 3.5 equates to about 8–10 pound fluctuation in body weight. The BCS should match the production stage of the goat and their nutrient needs.
The second method a producer might use to properly manage a goat herd is quantitative and requires accurately maintained records. Each individual animal has its own set of records that includes, but is not limited to, de-worming schedule, amount of feed, weight, and breeding schedule. For a production system, feed consumption can be difficult to manage, but is practical given the limitations associated with individual records. Often a producer discovers it is a combination of these methods, in addition to close observations of his/her goats that allows for a productive, efficient, and healthy herd. Once these basic management practices are implemented, the chance of mismanaging a goat’s diet and dealing with the resulting consequences are minimized.
Feeding & management of dairy goat
http://www.wrightsfeeds.ca/wp-content/uploads/2011/02/Feeding-and-Management-of-dairy-Goats.pdf
Well Water
Blackstrap Molasses (This article was written for human consumption but it also makes it work for goats)
1. Healthy Hair— The anti-aging antioxidants selenium, manganese, and zinc in blackstrap molasses work from the inside out to soften hair, reduce hair loss and graying hair. Take a tablespoon of blackstrap molasses daily for a healthy head of hair.
2. Arthritis Reliever— The anti-inflammatory properties in blackstrap molasses ease the discomfort and symptoms of arthritis by reducing swelling, joint inflammation, and pain.
3. Promotes Strong Healthy Bones—Its rich supply of calcium supports healing and improves bone and connective tissue health.
4. Brain Booster--The calcium, magnesium, and B vitamins in blackstrap molasses fight fatigue, anxiety, and stress while enhancing brain function, mood, and focus.
5. Prevents Anemia—Because blackstrap molasses contains iron, it helps produce hemoglobin and red blood cells to prevent anemia.
6. Stabilizes Blood Sugar Levels—Its low glycemic index naturally slows glucose and carbohydrate metabolism, producing less insulin. It’s a healthier choice than refined sugar, especially helpful for people with diabetes.
7. Menstrual Relief--The iron, magnesium, and calcium in blackstrap molasses help reduce menstrual cramps and symptoms of PMS.
** It should help pre-kidding & post-kidding contraction pains.
8. Healthy Skin—Use topically to soften and exfoliate the skin. Its lactic acid content can treat acne, eczema, and other skin conditions. To apply, wet the face and pat blackstrap molasses directed on the skin. Leave for five minutes before removing with a warm, wet cloth.
9. Digestion Aid—If you’re feeling over-full after a big meal, a spoonful of molasses might be the remedy as it stimulates digestion.
10. Constipation Remedy—Blackstrap molasses is a natural stool softener and prevents constipation.
11. Increases Stamina and Energy—Feeling sluggish? Consume a spoonful of blackstrap molasses to boost energy.
12. Natural Sleep Aid—When taken at bedtime, the calcium and magnesium help the body relax and promote restful sleep. Many people mix a tablespoon with warm milk (dairy or non-dairy) for a delicious sleepy-time drink.
1. Healthy Hair— The anti-aging antioxidants selenium, manganese, and zinc in blackstrap molasses work from the inside out to soften hair, reduce hair loss and graying hair. Take a tablespoon of blackstrap molasses daily for a healthy head of hair.
2. Arthritis Reliever— The anti-inflammatory properties in blackstrap molasses ease the discomfort and symptoms of arthritis by reducing swelling, joint inflammation, and pain.
3. Promotes Strong Healthy Bones—Its rich supply of calcium supports healing and improves bone and connective tissue health.
4. Brain Booster--The calcium, magnesium, and B vitamins in blackstrap molasses fight fatigue, anxiety, and stress while enhancing brain function, mood, and focus.
5. Prevents Anemia—Because blackstrap molasses contains iron, it helps produce hemoglobin and red blood cells to prevent anemia.
6. Stabilizes Blood Sugar Levels—Its low glycemic index naturally slows glucose and carbohydrate metabolism, producing less insulin. It’s a healthier choice than refined sugar, especially helpful for people with diabetes.
7. Menstrual Relief--The iron, magnesium, and calcium in blackstrap molasses help reduce menstrual cramps and symptoms of PMS.
** It should help pre-kidding & post-kidding contraction pains.
8. Healthy Skin—Use topically to soften and exfoliate the skin. Its lactic acid content can treat acne, eczema, and other skin conditions. To apply, wet the face and pat blackstrap molasses directed on the skin. Leave for five minutes before removing with a warm, wet cloth.
9. Digestion Aid—If you’re feeling over-full after a big meal, a spoonful of molasses might be the remedy as it stimulates digestion.
10. Constipation Remedy—Blackstrap molasses is a natural stool softener and prevents constipation.
11. Increases Stamina and Energy—Feeling sluggish? Consume a spoonful of blackstrap molasses to boost energy.
12. Natural Sleep Aid—When taken at bedtime, the calcium and magnesium help the body relax and promote restful sleep. Many people mix a tablespoon with warm milk (dairy or non-dairy) for a delicious sleepy-time drink.
"Fig Newton" type of treats
Fig newton type of treats have
Fig newton type of treats have